Ikon yin aiki ko samar da zafi. Yawancin lokaci ana auna shi azaman aikin inji, zafi, ko makàmaashín lantarki.

Iko yana da alaƙa da makàmaashí ta lokaci: iko = makàmaashí/lokaci (W = J/s).

• Tushen SI: joule (J)
• Lantarki: Wh da kWh
• Abinci mai gina jiki: Kalori = kilocalorie (kcal)

Ana cajin kuɗaɗen wutar lantarki a cikin kWh; kayan aiki suna lissafa iko (W) kuma kuna ninka da lokaci don samun kWh.

Alamun abinci suna amfani da Calories (kcal). Dumama/sanyaya sau da yawa suna amfani da BTU.

• Cajin waya: ~10 Wh
• Wanka (minti 10, hita 7 kW): ~1.17 kWh
• Abinci: ~600–800 kcal

Kimiyyar lissafi na ƙwayoyin cuta tana amfani da eV don makàmaashín photon da ƙwayoyin cuta.

A ma'aunin atomic, makàmaashín Hartree da Rydberg suna bayyana a cikin injiniyoyin quantum.

• 1 eV = 1.602×10⁻¹⁹ J
• Foton da ake iya gani: ~2–3 eV
• Makàmaashín Planck yana da girma ƙwarai (na ka'ida)

Ana cajin makàmaashín lantarki a cikin kWh; ƙididdige amfani da iko × lokaci.

• Kwan fitila na LED 10 W × 5 h ≈ 0.05 kWh
• Tanda 2 kW × 1 h = 2 kWh
• Kuɗin wata-wata yana haɗa dukkan na'urori

Calories a kan alamun su ne kilocalories (kcal) kuma galibi ana haɗa su da kJ.

• 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ
• Shigar da abinci na yau da kullum ~2,000–2,500 kcal
• kcal da Cal (abinci) iri ɗaya ne

BTU, therms, da kuma daidaitattun man fetur (BOE/TOE) suna bayyana a cikin HVAC da kasuwannin makàmaashí.

• 1 therm = 100,000 BTU
• Gas na halitta da mai suna amfani da daidaitattun daidaito
• Canje-canjen kWh ↔ BTU sun zama ruwan dare

Makàmaashí (kWh) × farashi a kowace kWh

• Misali: 2 kWh × $0.20 = $0.40
• 1,000 W × 3 h = 3 kWh

mAh × V ÷ 1000 ≈ Wh

• 10,000 mAh × 3.7 V ≈ 37 Wh
• Wh ÷ na'urar W ≈ lokacin gudu (awowi)

Ƙididdige fitar da iskar gas daga amfani da wutar lantarki

• CO₂ = kWh × yawan grid
• Misali: 5 kWh × 400 gCO₂/kWh = 2,000 g (2 kg)
• Grid mai ƙarancin carbon (100 g/kWh) yana rage wannan da 75%

Rikicewar da aka saba yi

• kW iko ne (gudun); kWh makàmaashí ne (adadin)
• Hita 2 kW na awowi 3 yana amfani da 6 kWh
• Kuɗaɗe suna amfani da kWh; faranti na kayan aiki suna nuna W/kW

Abubuwan da za a iya sabuntawa suna samar da iko (kW) wanda ke haɗuwa da lokaci zuwa makàmaashí (kWh).

Fitarwa tana canzawa da yanayi; matsakaicin lokaci mai tsawo yana da mahimmanci.

• Dalilin ƙarfi: % na matsakaicin fitarwa a kan lokaci
• Hasken rana na rufin: ~900–1,400 kWh/kW·shekara (ya dogara da wuri)
• Gonakin iska: dalilin ƙarfi sau da yawa 25–45%

Batirori suna adana rarar kuma suna canza makàmaashí zuwa lokacin da ake buƙata.

• Ƙarfin kWh da ikon kW suna da mahimmanci
• Ingancin tafiya da dawowa < 100% (asara)
• Tariff na lokacin amfani yana ƙarfafa canzawa

Batirin Tesla 60 kWh yana adana makàmaashí iri ɗaya da gida na yau da kullum ke amfani da shi a cikin kwanaki 2-3 — tunanin ɗaukar wutar lantarki na kwanaki 3 a cikin motarka!

Therm ɗaya shine 100,000 BTU (29.3 kWh). Kuɗaɗen gas na halitta suna amfani da therms saboda ya fi sauƙi a ce '50 therms' fiye da 'miliyan 5 BTU'!

Alamun abinci suna amfani da 'Calorie' (babban C) wanda a zahiri kilocalorie ne! Don haka wannan kuki na 200 Cal a zahiri yana da calories 200,000 (ƙaramin c).

Lita 1 na man fetur yana da makàmaashí 9.4 kWh, amma injina suna lalata 70% a matsayin zafi! Kusan 2.5 kWh ne kawai ke motsa motarka. EV suna lalata kusan 10-15% kawai.

1 kWh zai iya: kunna kwan fitila 100W na tsawon awowi 10, cajin wayoyin hannu 100, gasa yankan gurasa 140, ko kuma sa firij ɗinka ya yi aiki na awowi 24!

EV suna dawo da 15-25% na makàmaashí yayin birki ta hanyar mayar da motar zuwa janareta. Wannan makàmaashí ne na kyauta daga makàmaashín motsi da aka lalata!

Jikinka yana da isasshen makàmaashín-taro (E=mc²) don kunna dukkan biranen Duniya na tsawon mako guda! Amma canza taro zuwa makàmaashí yana buƙatar halayen nukiliya.

Fam da fam, man fetur na roket yana da makàmaashí sau 10 fiye da cakulan. Amma ba za ka iya cin man fetur na roket ba — makàmaashín sinadarai ≠ makàmaashín rayuwa!

Tsawon shekaru dubbai, mutane sun fahimci makàmaashí ne kawai ta hanyar tasirinsa: dumi daga wuta, ƙarfi daga abinci, da kuma ikon ruwa da iska. Makàmaashí ya kasance gaskiya mai amfani ba tare da fahimtar ka'ida ba.

• **Mallakar wuta** (~400,000 KZ) - Mutane suna amfani da makàmaashín sinadarai don zafi da haske
• **Kekunan ruwa** (~300 KZ) - Girkawa da Romawa suna canza makàmaashín motsi zuwa aikin inji
• **Injinan iska** (~600 AZ) - Farisawa suna kama makàmaashín iska don niƙa hatsi
• **Fahimtar abinci mai gina jiki** (zamanin da) - Abinci a matsayin 'man fetur' don ayyukan ɗan adam, kodayake ba a san hanyar ba

Waɗannan aikace-aikace masu amfani sun riga kowace ka'idar kimiyya da shekaru dubbai. An san makàmaashí ta hanyar gogewa, ba ta hanyar lissafi ba.

Juyin Juya Halin Masana'antu ya buƙaci ingantacciyar fahimta kan yadda zafi ke canzawa zuwa aiki. Injiniyoyi sun auna ingancin injina, wanda ya haifar da haihuwar ilimin kimiyyar zafi.

• **Ingantattun injin tururi na James Watt** (1769) - Ya ƙididdige fitar da aiki, ya gabatar da dokin-ƙarfi
• **Ka'idar injin zafi ta Sadi Carnot** (1824) - Ya tabbatar da iyakokin ka'ida kan canza zafi zuwa aiki
• **Julius von Mayer** (1842) - Ya ba da shawarar daidaiton inji na zafi: zafi da aiki suna iya musanyawa
• **Gwaje-gwajen James Joule** (1843-1850) - Ya auna daidai: 1 kalori = 4.184 joules na aikin inji

Gwaje-gwajen Joule sun tabbatar da adana makàmaashí: aikin inji, zafi, da wutar lantarki nau'o'i ne daban-daban na abu ɗaya.

Karni na 19 ya haɗa abubuwan lura daban-daban zuwa ra'ayi ɗaya: ana adana makàmaashí, yana canzawa tsakanin siffofi amma ba a taɓa ƙirƙira shi ko lalata shi ba.

• **Hermann von Helmholtz** (1847) - Ya tsara dokar adana makàmaashí
• **Rudolf Clausius** (1850s) - Ya gabatar da entropy, yana nuna cewa makàmaashí yana raguwa a inganci
• **James Clerk Maxwell** (1865) - Ya haɗa wutar lantarki da maganadisu, yana nuna cewa haske yana ɗauke da makàmaashí
• **Ludwig Boltzmann** (1877) - Ya haɗa makàmaashí da motsin atomic ta hanyar injiniyoyin ƙididdiga

A shekara ta 1900, an fahimci makàmaashí a matsayin babban kuɗin kimiyyar lissafi—yana canzawa amma ana adana shi a duk faɗin dukkanin hanyoyin halitta.

Karni na 20 ya bayyana makàmaashí a matsananci: daidaiton taro-makàmaashí na Einstein da injiniyoyin quantum a ma'aunin atomic.

• **Max Planck** (1900) - Ya ƙididdige makàmaashí a cikin radiation: E = hν (matsayin Planck)
• **E=mc² na Einstein** (1905) - Taro da makàmaashí suna daidai; ƙaramin taro = babban makàmaashí
• **Niels Bohr** (1913) - Matakan makàmaashín atomic suna bayyana layukan bakan; eV ya zama raka'a na halitta
• **Enrico Fermi** (1942) - Farko da aka sarrafa jerin halayen nukiliya yana sakin makàmaashí na ma'aunin MeV
• **Aikin Manhattan** (1945) - Gwajin Trinity ya nuna kimanin tan 22 na TNT daidai (~90 TJ)

Makàmaashín nukiliya ya tabbatar da E=mc²: fission yana canza 0.1% na taro zuwa makàmaashí—sau miliyoyin da suka fi yawa fiye da man fetur na sinadarai.

Al'ummar bayan yaƙi sun daidaita raka'o'in makàmaashí don abubuwan amfani, abinci, da kimiyyar lissafi yayin da suke fama da man fetur, abubuwan da za a iya sabuntawa, da inganci.

• **Daidaita kilowatt-awa** - Kamfanonin wutar lantarki na duniya sun karɓi kWh don biyan kuɗi
• **Alamar calorie** (1960s-90s) - An daidaita makàmaashín abinci; FDA ta ba da umarnin bayanan abinci mai gina jiki (1990)
• **Juyin Juya Halin Photovoltaic** (1970s-2020s) - Ingancin panel na hasken rana ya haura daga <10% zuwa >20%
• **Batirorin Lithium-ion** (1991-yanzu) - Yawan makàmaashí ya tashi daga ~100 zuwa 250+ Wh/kg
• **Grid mai wayo & Adanawa** (2010s) - Gudanar da makàmaashí na ainihi da batirori na sikelin grid

Karni na 21 ya amince da farashin muhalli na makàmaashí. An mayar da hankali daga kawai samar da makàmaashí zuwa samar da makàmaashí mai tsabta da inganci.

• **Yawan carbon** - Man fetur yana fitar da 400-1000 g CO₂/kWh; abubuwan da za a iya sabuntawa suna fitar da <50 g CO₂/kWh a tsawon rayuwarsu
• **Gibin adana makàmaashí** - Batirori suna adana ~0.5 MJ/kg idan aka kwatanta da 46 MJ/kg na man fetur; damuwar iyaka ta ci gaba
• **Haɗin grid** - Abubuwan da za a iya sabuntawa masu canzawa suna buƙatar adanawa da amsa buƙata
• **Abubuwan da ake buƙata na inganci** - LEDs (100 lm/W) idan aka kwatanta da incandescent (15 lm/W); famfun zafi (COP > 3) idan aka kwatanta da dumama mai juriya

Canji zuwa net-zero yana buƙatar kunna komai da wutar lantarki da kuma samar da wutar lantarki mai tsabta—cikakken sake fasalin tsarin makàmaashí.

Alamun abinci suna lissafa makàmaashí a cikin Calories (kcal). Jikinka yana canza wannan zuwa ATP don aikin sel tare da inganci ~25%.

• **Gudun rayuwa na asali** - ~1,500-2,000 kcal/rana (6-8 MJ) don rayuwa
• **Gudun Marathon** - Yana ƙone ~2,600 kcal (~11 MJ) a cikin awowi 3-4
• **Sanda na cakulan** - ~250 kcal na iya kunna kwamfutar tafi-da-gidanka 60W na tsawon ~awowi 4.5 (idan 100% inganci)
• **Lissafin abinci** - 1 lb na mai = ~3,500 kcal ragi; 500 kcal/rana ragi = 1 lb/mako

Ana cajin kuɗaɗen wutar lantarki a kowace kWh. Fahimtar amfani da kayan aiki yana taimakawa wajen rage farashi da sawun carbon.

• **LED da incandescent** - 10W LED = 60W hasken incandescent; yana adana 50W × 5 hours/rana = 0.25 kWh/rana = $9/wata
• **Nauyin fatalwa** - Na'urorin da ke kan jiran aiki suna lalata ~5-10% na makàmaashín gida (~1 kWh/rana)
• **Famfun zafi** - Suna motsa 3-4 kWh na zafi ta amfani da 1 kWh na wutar lantarki (COP > 3); masu dumama masu juriya sune 1:1
• **Cajin motar lantarki** - Batirin 60 kWh a $0.15/kWh = $9 don cajin cikakke (idan aka kwatanta da $40 daidai da man fetur)

Mota suna canza makàmaashín man fetur zuwa makàmaashín motsi tare da asara mai yawa. EV suna da inganci sau 3 fiye da injinan konewa na ciki.

• **Motar man fetur** - inganci 30%; 1 galan (132 MJ) → 40 MJ aiki mai amfani, 92 MJ zafi
• **Motar lantarki** - inganci 85%; 20 kWh (72 MJ) → 61 MJ zuwa ƙafafun, 11 MJ asara
• **Birki na sabuntawa** - Yana dawo da 10-25% na makàmaashín motsi zuwa batir
• **Aerodynamics** - Ninka saurin yana ninka ikon ja da ake buƙata sau huɗu (P ∝ v³)

Babban masana'antu yana da kashi ~30% na amfani da makàmaashí na duniya. Ingancin tsari da dawo da zafin da aka lalata suna da mahimmanci.

• **Samar da ƙarfe** - ~20 GJ a kowace ton (5,500 kWh); tanda na lantarki suna amfani da tarkace da ƙarancin makàmaashí
• **Narkar da aluminum** - ~45-55 GJ a kowace ton; dalilin da yasa sake amfani da shi yana adana 95% na makàmaashí
• **Cibiyoyin bayanai** - ~200 TWh/shekara a duniya (2020); PUE (Ingancin Amfani da Iko) yana auna inganci
• **Samar da siminti** - ~3-4 GJ a kowace ton; yana da kashi 8% na fitar da CO₂ na duniya

Rana, iska, da ruwa suna canza makàmaashín yanayi zuwa wutar lantarki. Matsayin ƙarfi da katsewa suna tsara aikin.

• **Panel na hasken rana** - inganci ~20%; 1 m² yana karɓar ~1 kW na kololuwar rana → 200W × 5 hours na rana/rana = 1 kWh/rana
• **Matsayin ƙarfin injin iska** - 25-45%; injin 2 MW × 35% CF = 6,100 MWh/shekara
• **Ruwan wutar lantarki** - inganci 85-90%; 1 m³/s yana faɗuwa 100m ≈ 1 MW
• **Ingancin tafiya da dawowa na ajiyar batir** - 85-95%; asara a matsayin zafi yayin caji/fitarwa

Daga masu hanzarta ƙwayoyin cuta zuwa haɗin laser, binciken kimiyyar lissafi yana aiki a matsanancin makàmaashí.

• **Babban Hadron Collider** - 362 MJ da aka adana a cikin katako; karo na proton a 13 TeV
• **Haɗin laser** - NIF yana ba da ~2 MJ a cikin nanoseconds; ya sami daidaito a 2022 (~3 MJ fitarwa)
• **Isotopes na likita** - Cyclotrons suna hanzarta proton zuwa 10-20 MeV don hoton PET
• **Hasken sararin samaniya** - Ƙwayar makàmaashí mafi girma da aka gano: ~3×10²⁰ eV (~50 J a cikin proton guda ɗaya!)

kW iko ne (gudun). kWh makàmaashí ne (kW × awowi). Kuɗaɗe suna amfani da kWh.

Ee. ‘Calorie’ na abinci yana daidai da 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.184 kJ.

Makàmaashí (kWh) × farashi (kowace kWh). Misali: 2 kWh × $0.20 = $0.40.

Aunawa na tarihi a yanayin zafi daban-daban ya haifar da bambance-bambance (IT, thermochemical). Don abinci mai gina jiki, yi amfani da kcal.

eV na halitta ne don ma'aunin atomic/ƙwayoyin cuta. Canja zuwa J don mahallin macroscopic.

Haƙiƙanin fitar da makàmaashí a kan lokaci wanda aka raba da fitarwa idan tashar ta yi aiki da cikakken iko 100% na lokacin.